C.G.Jung's Theory Of Psychological Types As A Grand Theory: A Preliminary Investigation

Psychological Type, Society and Philosophy

From the available evidence, neither C.G.Jung nor Isabel Myers would have claimed the label of philosopher for their endeavours as researchers and writers on psychological type. Jung, in his published seminars, described himself as a scientist and medical man, rejecting the philosopher's tag. Myers never addressed this issue, at least in terms of the available historical record. Her expressed purpose was to make practical and useful Jung's theory of psychological types. The practical outcome, in the form of a psychological instrument (the MBTI^®), was consistent with the realism and empiricism of her culture.

While philosophical standpoints themselves, these views place emphasis on looking at how things are rather than how they might be, a paradoxical situation for Isabel Myers as an idealist. This is not to say that there are no broader implications of the theory of psychological types other than the self-imposed boundaries of both its author and its significant developer. Jung himself acknowledged as much in his epilogue to Psychological Types (Jung, 1970), acknowledging the differences between his view and the perspective of the 18th Century Enlightenment. Aspects of his ideas and their societal implications have also been taken up by Progoff (1981) and Odajnyk (1976) as well as more recently, from a clinical perspective, by Samuels (1994).

In discussing and elaborating on these views, I contend that C.G. Jung's theory of psychological types and Isabel Myers' interpretation of that theory contain claims about the nature of human beings and the way they live in society that can be constructed into a useful and relevant Grand Theory or grand narrative. Doing so can have a powerful effect on how society is seen, as well as examining how the practical expression of type, the MBTI^®, is utilised.

Grand Theories

What is a grand theory? Clearly, any idea about people has a social application or implication. The key issue for an idea being a grand theory is whether it's comprehensive enough to make distinguishable, separate, meaningful claims.

Mike Hawkins, in examining and then dismissing the claims of Social Darwinism to being a grand theory, offers a succinct definition of a Grand Theory. He sees it as a systematic theory of the nature of humanity and society that can be understood and applied across boundaries of history and culture. A view of human development and a better way for humans to live and grow together are also important (Hawkins, 1997). Social Darwinism, an influence on Katharine Briggs through her admiration for the ideas of Herbert Spencer (Saunders, 1991) "does not possess...any concrete specification of human social and mental development, nor any particular vision of the optimal conditions for human social and spiritual existence " (Hawkins, 1997, p32), and so does not meet the criteria for a grand theory.

Grand theories can also be diverse in their theoretical orientation, as Quentin Skinner has shown in giving an overview on the topic (Skinner (ed.), 1990). The ideas of the Enlightenment (e.g. Kant, Hume) as a whole and contemporary social theorists such as Derrida and Habermas are examples of this. Grand theories seem to be most in use, or in debate, in sociological circles, but are also associated with a philosophical perspective that is then tested out, or debated against the available data.

Not all ideas about humans and society constitute a Grand Theory. Some views reject them altogether as being either dangerous or inaccurate. Post-modern thought, in its many guises, specifically rejects grand theories, favouring a number of subjective meanings based on a critical literary theory: i.e. a theory of the nature of language and communication and including a specific interpretation of historically recent European political events.

Postmodernists identify grand theories and narratives with what is seen as the failure of what is known as the "Enlightenment Project". This is postmodern code in some ways for labelling the view that all problems can be solved and society can be improved through the universal use and development of objective logic, following the ideas of the French philosophes and others, such as Kant and Hume. The most prominent current defender of this point of view is Jurgen Habermas. Enlightenment based approaches have a flavour of positivism and rationalism (see Lyotard, 1991). Post-modern ideas are themselves influenced by the work of Karl Marx, Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan, amongst others. It's a short step from this to the notion of information, rather than knowledge. The sociologist John Law, for example, uses this perspective to describe a world where there is no homogeneous and static order, but many attempts at ordering that intersect and overlap (Law, 1994).

Psychological Type as a Grand Theory

Does Psychological Type meet the criteria for a grand theory ? A survey of literature produced by Jung and Myers on psychological type (See References) produces the following claims, amomgst others, about the nature of human beings and society:

• All human beings, as part of being human and irrespective of their culture, are born with a predisposition to looking at and experiencing the world in a particular way;
• This predisposition can be classified broadly as personal cognitive preferences as follows:
  • An energy-orientated attitude to the world (Extraversion or Introversion)
  • A way of taking in information from the standpoint of facts, or impressions;
  • A way of sorting this data and making rational decisions, either objectively and non-personally, or subjectively and personally;
  • A consequential public face to the world, either ordered or open-ended.
• These preferences involve choice: Human beings can choose to act outside their preferences, sometimes under social or cultural pressure, and can develop skills around their non-preferences.
• This process also involves becoming conscious, or self-aware. It is presumed that doing so increases the value of one's contribution to society and also that individual welfare is enhanced. Consciousness is a key factor in the development of individuals, and societies.
• These inborn preferences are developed through interaction with the environment
  (e.g. family, place of residence, belief systems, culture), a combination of nature and nurture.
• An environment unfavourable to certain preferences can also inhibit their development. It is presumed that this experience results in some psychological stress for the individual;
• These preferences are also developed dynamically over the lifespan in broadly recognisable stages that also include personal acknowledgement of the value and use of non-preferences;
• Exercising any and all of these preferences comes within the span of normality in terms of human behaviour;
• All preferences are valuable to human societies, in their various forms;
• Exercising these preferences may look different in different cultures; and
• All preferences are used by both males and females, notwithstanding that:
  • more males than females are likely to prefer objective, non-personal decisionmaking; and
  • more females than males are likely to prefer subjective, personal decisionmaking.

If we compare this broad list with Hawkins' definition above, we can see that Psychological Type meets his criteria for a grand theory. It puts forward a systematic theory, including a developmental framework, concerning humans and societies, including some observations about differences between cultures.

Implications and Observations

But what does all this mean ? Why would we want to do this ? Are we just adding another idea for the sake of it ? From a post-modern perspective, for instance, the type framework can be seen either as one more insidious grand theory, or as one more overlapping framework. Interestingly, there are some post-modern parallels. The actor-network theorist Bruno Latour has suggested that there are various cultures, sub-cultures and experiences in contemporary society that do not fit the modernist or rationalist framework . Not everybody is "modern" (Latour, 1993). This is no news if you have read Jung and not too different from Jung's perspective in Psychological Types, written some 70 years ago.

I think that the value in a psychological type grand theory is that it both challenges prevailing methods in a number of fields of society and that there is a large body of supportive research available concerning the theory, predominantly related to the MBTI^® which means that you have to take the idea seriously even if it's to explain or interpret research results from another perspective.

This is not to suggest that the instrument itself is an integral part of the grand theory, although naturally, as a practical application, it is connected in some way. Part of the difficulty in the acceptance of the MBTI^® in various academic circles is because it is based on a theory quite different from the conventional trait approach and its associated mathematical approaches for quantifying personality. Type indicates that it's more difficult to quantify things than first meets the eye.

Another problem is that published work on the philosophical implications of type for societies hasn't been a focus of type research: it hasn't been explained in societal terms. There are also too many culturally specific presumptions loaded on to the MBTI^® and personality instrumentation as a whole that can negate or distract from any benefit for people or society. Many people in this field seem unaware or oblivious of the sometimes quite vigorous social critique of their work.(See e.g. Danziger (1994); Gould (1992); Wooldridge (1994)). A society which favours any instrumentation as a social benchmark or as part of a social theory (e.g. IQ) runs the risk of negating any benefits through an unhealthy bias towards standardisation and order, even an anti-democratic perspective.

This is not what the typology is purported to be about, at least from Jung's perspective. As Jung and Myers both recognised, the psychological type approach to the world presumes that the most effective environment for human beings is some form of liberal democratic society, a flexible environment where people's talents and predilections can be recognised, developed and tolerated. In this environment, all people are equal, on the simple basis of being human. Although type theory focuses on the individual, whose development is crucial, society is also essential. Human beings are considered to be naturally oriented towards forming and participating in societies (Odajnyk, 1976). Like postmodernism, however, there's no one best way to achieve this, and Jung, in his Epilogue to Psychological Types, warns against idealism, or the standardisation and enforcement of an idea as the one right way of thinking (Jung, 1970).

A psychological type perspective on the world is radically different from many prevailing views and in some cases, incompatible. Prevailing economic frameworks, for instance, and many management and business practices that presume sameness amongst individuals and work as the focus of existence. There are severe paradoxes inherent in using type in supporting the activities of organisations whose bottom line is that people are a cost, and so therefore ultimately dispensable. In the world of work, presumptions about work, its value or necessity, how it should be done, whether it should be performed at all, and how it should be organised to benefit all the people, worker and employer, investor and legislator can benefit from a type critique.

Type also provides a doubly different perspective on what is considered rational. The Enlightenment approach does not value, non-objective cognitive approaches to decision making as does type. Presumptions that human beings are rational in principle and if they are not there is something wrong with them are inadequate from a type perspective. This is emphasised when one observes and researches what people actually do. In particular the tabula rasa or blank slate approach to the mind, influential from the time of John Locke, is increasingly shown to be inconsistent with much recent research regarding how human beings develop, learn about things, act in juries, even fill in psychological instruments (e.g.Kagan(1989,1994);Moir & Jessel (1989)).

Type provides different perspectives on gender issues, education and learning methods, life values and the nature of equality. A type approach to personality reframes ideas of neuroticism, deviance and normality, often socio-political rather than psychological constructs in any case as well as the presumed general applicability of much research on people.

None of what has been suggested above should really be new to the experienced type user or thinker. Very often, however, it's the application rather than the implication that's focused on. Developing the notion of Jung's psychological types as a grand theory and using it to interpret the world, can at least help people to understand more about themselves and what is involved in their using or experiencing type. Most important in all this is that it can say something quite different, perhaps quite challenging or confronting about the workplace, society or world we live in.

Selected References

Danziger, Kurt (1994), Constructing the Subject: Historical Origins of Psychological Research,Cambridge

Geyer, Peter (1995), Quantifying Jung:The Origin and Development of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator^®, MSc Thesis, University of Melbourne.

Gould, Stephen Jay (1992), The Mismeasure Of Man Penguin. Hawkins, Mike (1997), Social Darwinism in European and American Thought 1860-1943, Cambridge

Humbert, Elie (1993), C.G.Jung: The Fundamentals of Theory and Practice Chiron

Jung, C.G.(1990), Psychological Types, Princeton University Press.

Jung, C.G.(1945), Contributions to Analytical Psychology,Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.

Jung, C.G.(1920), Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology, Bailliere,Tindal, Cox.

Jung, C.G. (1968) Analytical Psychology:Its Theory & Practice_The Tavistock Lectures 1935 Vintage

Jung, C.G.(1989), Analytical Psychology, Princeton University Press.

Kagan, Jerome (1989), Unstable Ideas: Temperament, Cognition and Self. Harvard University Press.

Kagan, Jerome (1994) Galen's Prophecy: Temperament in Human Nature, Basic Books

Latour, Bruno (1993), We Have Never Been Modern Harvard University Press

Law, John (1994), Organising Modernity, Blackwell.

Lawrence, Gordon (1986), "Issues in the Development of the MBTI^®" in Journal of Psychological Type Vol.12.pp 2-7.

Lyotard, Jean-Francois (1991), The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, University of Minnesota Press

Moir, Anne & Jessel, David (1989) Brainsex Mandarin Books.

Myers, Isabel Briggs (1971) Reflections on the History of the Type Indicator^®.

Myers, Isabel Briggs, (1971) Consequences of Psychological Type Unpublished Manuscript.

Myers, Isabel Briggs, (1971) Taking Type into Account in Education Unpublished Paper.

Myers, Isabel Briggs et al (1993) Conversations with Isabel CAPT Video.

Myers, Isabel Briggs, w. Myers, Peter B.(1990) Gifts Differing, 10th Anniversary Edition. CPP

Myers, Isabel and McCaulley, Mary H.(1985) MBTI^® Manual,CPP.

Myers, Katharine D.(1987), "Katharine C.Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers:The Women Behind the MBTI^®", in Journal of Psychological Type Vol.13 pp 2-8.

Odajnyk, Volodymyr Walter (1976) Jung and Politics: The Political and Social Ideas of C.G.Jung , Harper

Progoff, Ira (1981) Jung's Psychology and its Social Meaning Dialogue House.

Samuels, Andrew (1994) The Political Psyche Routledge. Saunders, Frances Wright (1991), Katharine and Isabel:Mother's Light, Daughter's Journey, CPP

Shi, David E. (1995), Facing Facts: Realism in American Thought and Culture, 1850-1920 Oxford

Skinner, Quentin (ed) (1990), The Return of Grand Theory in the Human Sciences, Canto.

Wooldridge, Adrian (1994) Measuring the Mind: Education and psychology in England, c. 1860-1990. Cambridge

Photograph courtesy of Jamie Johnston, CAPT Library. PETER GEYER (INTP) is a consultant, researcher and writer in the field of C G Jung's theory of psychological types. He conducts MBTI Accreditation programs and presents internationally on a regular basis. Peter is a life member of AusAPT and a professional affiliate of the Australian Psychological Society.